Skin communicates with the body, often disclosing the first signs and/or symptoms of an internal disease, which may even be the only expressions of a systemic disease. In this first part, the authors will comprehensively address the cutaneous manifestations of connective tissue diseases, neutrophilic diseases, purpuras and vasculitis, and granulomatous diseases. In some of these diseases, it is possible to divide the cutaneous manifestations into specific (when biopsied, the histopathology is very helpful in the investigation of the disease) and non specific manifestations of the disease (there are no histopathological characteristics of the cases). In other diseases, this classification is not applicable. This division will be described whenever possible.

Lupus erythematosus (LE) is an inflammatory disease of the connective tissue with a variety of clinical presentations, characterized by the production of autoantibodies against cell constituents. The 2019 EULAR/ACR criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) include positive ANAs at least once as a mandatory criterion, followed by additional criteria separated into seven clinical groups (constitutional, hematological, neuropsychiatric, mucocutaneous, serous, musculoskeletal, and renal) and three immunological ones (antiphospholipid antibodies, complement proteins, and SLE-specific antibodies).1 In the current classification, skin lesions are divided into 4 subtypes, with different scores among them according to the risk of being present in systemic lupus (non-cicatricial alopecia - 2 points; oral ulcers - 2 points, chronic discoid cutaneous OR subacute lupus – 4 points; acute cutaneous lupus – 6 points). For the diagnosis of SLE, the patient must have at least 10 points. Skin manifestations of lupus comprise a spectrum that ranges from benign and self-limited lesions to severe eruptions, which can sometimes be fatal when associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

LE can occur as a manifestation of SLE or independently from it. Gilliam and Sontheimer classified cutaneous LE into three forms, based strictly on the clinical appearance of the cutaneous lesions, comprising three forms: chronic cutaneous LE, subacute cutaneous, and acute cutaneous LE. Gilliam, however, expanded this classification based on specific and non-specific clinical and histopathological characteristics.2 LE patients may have more than one clinical form of the disease. Non specific manifestations are those that do not have histopathological characteristics of lupus erythematosus but provide “clues” regarding the diagnosis and prognosis. In contrast, specific manifestations of LE encompass the subtypes of cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE), which are chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CCLE), subacute (SACLE), and acute (ACLE). The cutaneous manifestations of SLE are described in Table 1.

Dermatomyositis (DM) is an idiopathic, clinically heterogeneous inflammatory disease that can be difficult to diagnose. It encompasses various cutaneous manifestations that may or may not parallel myositis and systemic involvement over time and/or disease severity.

Bohan and Peter, in 1975, suggested the use of five criteria to diagnose dermatomyositis. These include: 1) Symmetrical proximal muscle weakness that progresses over a period of weeks to months; 2) Elevated serum levels of muscle enzymes; 3) Abnormal electroneuromyography; 4) Abnormal muscle biopsy; 5) The presence of cutaneous manifestations typical of dermatomyositis. New criteria, by Dalakas and Hohlfeld, in 2003, highlighted the importance of histopathological evaluation of the muscle, improving its specificity, albeit becoming less sensitive. These are useful criteria for evaluation but are unnecessary in patients with characteristic skin disease, particularly those with proximal muscle weakness and elevated muscle enzymes.

The clinical course of dermatomyositis skin lesions is not necessarily parallel to that of muscle disease and may precede or follow myositis. In more than half of patients, cutaneous manifestations precede muscle involvement by months or years. Moreover, muscle disease activity is not reflected by skin disease activity. Cutaneous involvement can be divided into seven types: pathognomonic, characteristic, compatible, less common, rare, recently described, and non-specific cutaneous manifestations.9 Pathognomonic cutaneous manifestations (heliotrope and Gottron’s papules) and the others will be reported below (Fig. 3).

Figure 3.

Dermatomyositis. Left: characteristic erythema on the posterior cervical region and upper back (“shawl sign”). Right: erythema on the back of the hands (Gottron’s sign).

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Gottron’s papules: they consist of erythematous violaceous papules covering the interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal joints.

Heliotrope: it consists of pink to violaceous erythema, with or without edema, involving the periorbital skin. The upper eyelid is the most affected site.

Gottron’s sign: it consists of erythematous-violaceous macules over other joints, such as elbows or knees.

Photosensitivity: the clinical picture is characterized by intense photosensitivity, with erythematous-violaceous lesions on the scalp, neck, shoulders, extensor surfaces of the upper extremities, upper chest region (“V-neck sign”), and upper back region (“shawl sign”). The malar erythema reaches the nasolabial fold as opposed to malar erythema in lupus erythematosus, which spares it.

Pruritus: it can be intense and persistent, affecting the patient’s quality of life. Moreover, its presence may be useful to clinically differentiate dermatomyositis from lupus erythematosus, where there is no marked pruritus. It is often resistant to treatment with topical antihistamines and corticosteroids. Erythematous-squamous lesions may also be present on the lateral aspect of the thighs (“holster sign”).

Scalp lesions: scalp involvement is characterized by atrophic, erythematous, and squamous plaques. There is marked pruritus in this region, more than can be observed from the clinical findings. These manifestations of dermatomyositis can be misdiagnosed, especially in the initial phase, as seborrheic dermatitis or psoriasis. Mild to moderate non-cicatricial alopecia may occur.

Nail fold lesions: periungual telangiectasia (apparent or detected by digital microscopy), cuticular hypertrophy and dystrophy, and small hemorrhagic infarcts are typical alterations of the nail folds.

Vasculitis: it can manifest as palpable purpura, urticaria-like lesions, livedo reticularis, nail fold infarction, digital or oral ulceration; less commonly as vesico-bullous, erosive, necrotic, and ulcerative lesions. Cutaneous vasculitis occurs mainly in juvenile dermatomyositis, and usually as leukocytoclastic vasculitis. The presence of vesico-bullous and erosive skin lesions or cutaneous vasculitis should lead to a diagnostic investigation for possible underlying malignancy.

Cutaneous calcinosis: there are calcified deposits in the skin and subcutaneous tissue. According to serum calcium/phosphate levels, cutaneous calcinosis can be classified into four subtypes: dystrophic, metastatic, iatrogenic, and idiopathic. Dystrophic calcinosis occurs in damaged tissues and is associated with several connective tissue diseases, especially dermatomyositis, with serum calcium/phosphate levels within normal limits. Its pathophysiology remains unclear. Calcinosis is more common in juvenile dermatomyositis (30%–70% of cases) than in adults (10% of cases). It presents as superficial or subcutaneous nodules, found mainly in sites of repeated trauma, such as the gluteal region, elbows, and knees. Calcinosis located on the extensor surface of the extremities can ulcerate, leading to chronic, difficult-to-heal ulcers.

“Mechanic’s hands”: characterized by hyperkeratosis, scaling, and fissures in the fingers or even the palms of the hands. The lesions are distributed along the ulnar surface of the thumb and radial aspect of the fingers and are more prominent on the index and middle fingers, with rare extension to the palm. It is characteristic of the anti-synthetase syndrome, which also includes the findings of arthritis, interstitial lung disease, and Raynaud’s phenomenon. Mechanic’s hands can also be seen outside the anti-synthetase scenario, in cases of polymyositis, classic and amyopathic dermatomyositis.

Wong Variant: it is characterized by hyperkeratotic, follicular erythematous papules on the extensor side of the extremities, sometimes associated with palmar keratoderma.

Flagellate erythema: it is characterized by erythematous, edematous, linear, pruritic and/or painful lesions (as if produced by whipping) located on the trunk. It can occur in association with dermatomyositis, adult-onset Still’s disease, treatment with systemic bleomycin, shiitake consumption, and exposure to jellyfish.

Panniculitis: It occurs in the juvenile and adult forms, as indurated, isolated, or confluent nodules on the gluteal region, upper limbs, thighs, and abdomen. Some lesions are followed by calcification. Histopathological examination shows lobular panniculitis with lymphoplasmacytic infiltrate, liquefaction at the dermo-epidermal junction, and membranocystic changes. The pathogenesis of panniculitis in dermatomyositis is unclear.

Vesiculobullous eruptions: vesicles or bullae may rarely develop on the dorsal surfaces of the hands or forearms, and in other areas. These eruptions can be caused by photosensitivity, with histopathological findings of liquefaction degeneration of the basal layer of the epidermis, subepidermal edema, mucin deposition in the upper dermis, or complications from autoimmune bullous diseases.

Erythroderma: it is rare and is associated with malignancy.

Oral mucosal lesions: oral mucosal involvement includes telangiectasias, edema, erosions, ulcers, and leukoplakia-like areas. Gingival telangiectasia probably represents a diagnostic finding analogous to nail fold telangiectasia. Hyposalivation is common and may explain an increased prevalence of dental caries in these patients.

Inverse Gottron’s papules: a very rare manifestation of dermatomyositis. Located on the palmar surface of the interphalangeal joints (unlike classic Gottron’s papules). They present as localized white triangular hyperkeratosis.

Recently described cutaneous manifestations: these are rare and include inverse Gottron’s papules, digital ulcerations, Gottron’s papules (or sign) with ulceration, and “hiker’s feet” (mechanic’s feet).

Raynaud’s phenomenon: mainly seen in patients with dermatomyositis and overlapping autoimmune diseases or in the anti-synthetase syndrome. It is a non-specific manifestation of the disease.9

A skin biopsy can help to differentiate dermatomyositis from other papulosquamous or eczematous diseases but cannot be used to differentiate dermatomyositis from lupus erythematosus. Classically, the skin biopsy in dermatomyositis shows hyperkeratosis, epidermal thinning, vacuolar interface dermatitis, thickening of the epithelial basement membrane, dermal edema, pigment incontinence, mucin deposits, and a perivascular infiltrate consisting of CD4+ lymphocytes. These findings are observed in the pathognomonic lesions that are characteristic of dermatomyositis; however, they are not seen in mechanic’s hands, panniculitis, cutaneous vasculitis, urticaria, flagellate erythema, and follicular hyperkeratosis.

Dermatomyositis is a heterogeneous disorder with multiple phenotypes, including myositis, dermatitis, and interstitial lung disease. Recently identified myositis-specific autoantibodies have been associated with distinct clinical features. These autoantibodies are highly specific for the disease. For example, melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA-5) antibodies have high specificity for clinically amyopathic DM with rapidly progressive lung disease. Anti-transcriptional intermediary factor 1-γ antibody, found in juvenile and adult DM patients, is closely related to neoplasms, especially in elderly patients. Patients with anti-aminoacyl-transfer RNA synthetase (ARS) antibodies share characteristic clinical symptoms, including myositis, pulmonary disease, arthritis/arthralgia, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and fever; therefore, the term “anti-synthetase syndrome” is also used (Table 2).10

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease characterized by inflammation and the development of joint deformities and by association with the rheumatoid factor (75% of patients with RA and in 5% to 10% of healthy individuals) and with the second-generation anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (CCP) antibody (specificity from 90% to 95%).11

The lesions do not have typical RA histopathology but are suggestive; some are specific to the disease and others have a greater association. They include neutrophilic lesions – pyoderma gangrenosum and rheumatoid neutrophilic dermatosis; palisaded granuloma – rheumatoid nodule, palisaded granulomatous and neutrophilic dermatitis, granulomatous interstitial dermatitis; vascular lesions – small and medium-vessel cutaneous vasculitis, Bywater’s lesions, erythema elevatum diutinum, petechiae and palmar and subungual erythema; nail changes – onychorrhexis, onychomadesis, onycholysis, digital clubbing, red lunula, and inverse nail pterygium; other changes – amyloidosis and chronic spontaneous urticaria.11

RA-related subcutaneous nodules include classic rheumatoid nodules, accelerated rheumatoid nodulosis, and rheumatoid nodulosis. 11

Classic rheumatoid nodules: indurated single or multiple subcutaneous nodular lesions of variable size, preferably located on the extensor surfaces of the forearms and elbows. They occurs in 20% to 30% of cases and 90% are associated with the presence of the rheumatoid factor at high titers but unrelated to disease severity or progression.11 Smokers are at greater risk of developing them. They can also be seen over finger joints, sacral region, ischial tuberosity, Achilles tendon, pre-auricular region, and scalp. When large, they can cause nerve compression, ulcerate, and be cosmetically unpleasant. Histopathologically, they exhibit large nodules in the deep dermis and hypodermis, consisting of fibrin and surrounded by palisaded granulomas.

Accelerated rheumatoid nodulosis: it is characterized by previous subcutaneous nodules (preferably over hand joints) that grow suddenly and rapidly and are independent of joint disease activity.11 They can be associated with the treatment of RA, especially with methotrexate.

Rheumatoid nodulosis: multiple subcutaneous rheumatoid nodules without the presence of severe RA and without systemic manifestations, more common in middle-aged men (30 to 50 years), with a self-limited and benign course. There are also reports in children, not associated with the development of RA, and lesions in atypical areas such as the scalp, pretibial region, knees, feet, and perimalleolar region.

The vascular manifestations of RA are not specific and their prototype is rheumatoid vasculitis, which consists of small and medium-vessel leukocytoclastic vasculitis, due to deposits of immune complexes that affect both the skin and the mesenteric vessels, central nervous system, and heart, in 2% to 5% of patients with long-term, erosive disease with high titers of rheumatoid factor. Depending on the caliber and location of the affected vessel, it may manifest as a purpuric macular or papular lesion, retiform purpura, livedo reticularis, subcutaneous nodules, and ulcers (usually perimalleolar ones). Digital infarcts secondary to Raynaud’s phenomenon can also be observed. Small-vessel cutaneous vasculitis can also occur as a reactive phenomenon in the presence of disease activity. What differentiates cutaneous vasculitis from rheumatoid vasculitis is that the latter usually is sudden and extensive, with simultaneous involvement of internal organs and a high mortality rate, whereas the first follows a more benign course. Peripheral neuropathy in the context of rheumatoid vasculitis indicates a worse prognosis and must be quickly treated.

Granulomatous and neutrophilic lesions have also been reported, such as neutrophilic rheumatoid dermatitis, granulomatous and neutrophilic palisaded dermatitis, granulomatous interstitial dermatitis with arthritis, pyoderma gangrenosum, and Sweet’s syndrome. Within the group of granulomatous lesions, neutrophilic granulomatous dermatitis is a suspicious manifestation of RA, albeit rare. It manifests as urticarial symmetrical erythematous papules, plaques, nodules, or bullae in women (2:1), with erosive disease and high RF titers, on the extensor surfaces of the joints (mainly dorsum of hands and forearms). Histopathology discloses a neutrophilic, leukocytoclasia, and endothelial edema without fibrinoid necrosis (i.e., no evidence of vasculitis). Severe spongiosis can cause clinical vesicle/bullous lesions. Its course follows that of RA activity.

There is debate whether the other granulomatous lesions are within the spectrum of palisaded granulomatous dermatitis, but with some clinical and histopathological differences. They can also be called granulomatous interstitial dermatitis with arthritis, Churg-Strauss granuloma, rheumatoid papules, ulcerating rheumatoid necrobiosis, and extravascular necrotizing granuloma of Winkelmann. Palisaded granulomatous dermatitis presents with painful normochromic papules and nodules on the extensor surfaces of the limbs, with umbilication or central crust. Urticarial and annular lesions have been described, in addition to livedo reticularis.

Interstitial granulomatous dermatitis with arthritis presents as annular papules, erythematous-violaceous nodules and plaques, and subcutaneous linear cords, symmetrical on the lateral side of the trunk and also seen on the inner thighs, in middle-aged women with high RF. It is not exclusive to RA, as it can occur in other collagenoses. It may also be associated with an underlying lymphoproliferative malignant neoplasm and HIV infection. Drug-induced granulomatous dermatitis (lipid-lowering agents, anticonvulsant, antihistamines, and anti-TNF drugs)11 may be clinically similar but presents with vacuolar interface dermatitis. Histopathology basically shows a histiocytic infiltrate with a palisaded border, a center with collagen degeneration, and a neutrophilic infiltrate. In palisaded granulomatous dermatitis, in addition to the abovementioned histopathological findings, there may be leukocytoclastic vasculitis.

Felty’s syndrome: This is a rare, extra-articular manifestation of seropositive RA, characterized by a triad comprising arthritis, neutropenia, and splenomegaly. The accompanying skin lesions are rheumatoid nodules (as it is a long-term erosive disease with high RF titles) and leg ulcers. It is associated with a poor prognosis, with a mortality rate of 25% (usually from sepsis).

Still’s disease (or juvenile idiopathic arthritis, JIA) is a rheumatologic disease that courses with childhood or adolescent-onset arthritis. It is currently classified into 7 subtypes.12 The systemic subtype of JIA is the one that courses with classic dermatological lesions, consisting of a macular and papular, morbilliform or evanescent urticarial eruption of erythematous to orange color (salmon), which occurs during episodes of fever (usually in the evening) and may precede or accompany arthritis. Histopathology is non specific and shows a sparse lymphocytic and histiocytic infiltrate in the superficial and perivascular dermis.

There is a type of adult-onset Still's disease that is usually seen in women before 30 years of age, in which the evanescent lesions described above occur, as well as atypical lesions of different clinical presentations such as urticarial papules, lichenoid papules, lesions similar to dermographism (Fig. 4), similar to dermatomyositis, prurigo pigmentosa, and lichen amyloidosus. All these manifestations have the same histopathology (parakeratotic foci, single or multiple necrotic keratinocytes in the Malpighian layer, and a neutrophilic infiltrate in the upper perivascular dermis. Absence of eosinophils). These “atypical” persistent lesions have an estimated frequency of 29% to 78% in patients with adult-onset Still’s disease and, when present, they indicate worse prognosis. They are therefore markers of disease severity.13 Other cutaneous manifestations associated with Still's disease that have been described include alopecia, cutaneous pain, acneiform lesions, pruritus, non-caseous granulomas, eczema-like lesions, urticaria, angioedema, palmoplantar vesicopustules, dichromic erythema migrans, generalized peau d’orange-like infiltration equal to diffuse cutaneous mucinosis, and persistent generalized erythema.14,15

Figure 4.

Adult-onset Still’s disease – flagellated lesions. Linear flagellate macules of adult-onset Still’s disease.

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Raynaud’s phenomenon is defined by the change in the color of the fingers that corresponds to vasospasm (pallor and cyanosis), followed or not by vasodilation (erythema), due to sudden exposure to low temperatures on days with mild temperatures. It can be classified as primary (with milder symptoms) or secondary to an underlying disease, such as a connective tissue disease. In this case, the disease is more aggressive, with a greater risk of ulcerations and necrosis on acral extremities. It usually affects the fingers, but it has been described on the ears and nipples.

In 2014, Maverakis et al. established that the diagnosis is made by meeting three of the criteria below: 1) presence of clinical findings suggestive of Raynaud (pallor - cyanosis - erythema); 2) normal capillaroscopy; 3) negative physical examination for secondary causes (ulcerations, gangrene, sclerodactyly, calcinosis, cutaneous fibrosis; 4) no previous history of connective tissue disease; 5) negative or low ANA titers (1:40).

In a patient with Raynaud’s phenomenon, capillaroscopy must be performed, in addition to a complete investigation including a thorough history and physical examination and an autoantibody panel. Capillaroscopy changes in a patient with Raynaud’s phenomenon are a risk marker for the disease to be secondary to a connective tissue disease.

It is an autoimmune disease of unknown etiology and can be classified as primary (pSS) or secondary (sSS) if associated with another connective tissue disease. The cutaneous manifestations of pSS are underestimated so that dermatologists often do not make this diagnosis. There are no specific cutaneous manifestations of SS.17 That is why it is difficult to attain a conclusive diagnosis of pSS, as the disease shares non-specific clinical and immunological characteristics with other connective tissue diseases.18 The cutaneous manifestations are: 1) sicca syndrome: xerostomia, xerophthalmia, and xerosis; 2) Raynaud’s phenomenon; 3) cutaneous vasculitis: small-vessel (IgG/IgM), cryoglobulinemia and erythema elevatum diutinum (rare); 4) positive antiRo (SSA) annular lesions; 5) localized nodular cutaneous amyloidosis; 6) Pruritus; 7) photosensitivity; 8) associated dermatoses: alopecia (areata), vitiligo, lichen planus, anetoderma, Sweet’s syndrome, granulomatous panniculitis, multiform-like erythema, erythema dyschromicum perstans-like, and erythema nodosum-like.17,18

Sicca syndrome is the clinical manifestation of the autoimmune process against the salivary, lacrimal and eccrine glands. It occurs later in the disease, usually in older individuals. Fifty percent of the individuals with pSS have xerosis.18 There is reduced sweating with dry skin associated with symptoms such as pruritus, itching, and a burning sensation.17 There are some reports of cases of itching in the ear canal due to the reduced production of earwax and dermatitis due to eyelid dryness. Genital symptoms of Sicca syndrome include dyspareunia and vaginal pruritus.

Ocular and oral dryness occurs in 85% of patients with pSS.18 Xerostomia causes pain and a burning sensation in the oral mucosa, dysphagia, angular cheilitis, and a higher incidence of caries.

Raynaud’s phenomenon occurs in 30% of pSS cases and may be the first manifestation of the disease.

Cutaneous vasculitis occurs in 10% of pSS and in 85% of the cases it can be observed before the onset of Sicca syndrome symptoms.18 It is a small-vessel leukocytoclastic vasculitis and, when associated with cryoglobulinemia, it has a poor prognosis (more severe systemic disease, association with B lymphoma, and higher mortality rate). Clinically, it may present as typical purpuric lesions, but also as urticarial lesions of urticaria vasculitis, and rarely as erythema elevatum diutinum.18 Waldenström’s hypergammaglobulinemic purpura also occurs in the context of Sjögren’s syndrome and will be discussed further below in the purpura section.

Photosensitivity lesions, erythematous annular papules and plaques, and polycyclic annular erythema can occur in pSS (9% of cases) in individuals with anti-Ro antibodies (SSA) positivity, without association with LE. However, the differentiation (clinical and histopathological) of these lesions from subacute lupus lesions that have only skin disease is very difficult. Skin lesions are associated with a lower risk of glandular and systemic disease and have a better prognosis.18

The lesions may present an inflammatory infiltrate consisting of lymphocytes and plasma cells with or without reduction of eccrine glands and ductal structures, and perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate.17 Direct immunofluorescence shows epidermal deposits of intercellular IgG in 2/3 of pSS cases and in about 13% of sSS cases.17

Nodular localized cutaneous amyloidosis is a rare manifestation and in 25% of cases, it is associated with pSS. It is usually located on the lower and upper limbs, as well as on the trunk and face. It may accompany renal and lower respiratory tract amyloidosis.18

Scleroderma is a term that encompasses a series of diseases that manifest dermatologically with thickening of the skin. It can be part of a syndrome with vascular, pulmonary, cardiac, and renal manifestations (the systemic scleroses - SS) or be located only in the skin (the localized sclerodermas).

Systemic sclerosis is classified according to the latest ACR/EULAR (American College of Rheumatology/European League Against Rheumatism) consensus in 2013 as limited cutaneous systemic sclerosis and diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis.19 Their main characteristics are shown below:

Limited cutaneous SS: Raynaud’s phenomenon; skin induration on the distal extremities of the limbs, face (microstomy), and neck; telangiectasias; the presence of anti-centromere antibody and increased risk of pulmonary hypertension;

Diffuse cutaneous SS: recent onset of Raynaud’s Phenomenon; induration of the skin of the proximal portion of the limbs and trunk; early progression to cardiac involvement; pulmonary (fibrosis), renal and gastrointestinal involvement; tendon friction; increased risk of scleroderma renal crisis; the presence of Anti-Scl-70, an anti-topoisomerase antibody that increases the risk of pulmonary fibrosis; the presence of anti-RNA polymerase III antibody, which indicates a greater probability for renal crisis and cancer.

Histopathology of the affected skin is characteristic and demonstrates a reduction in the spaces between the collagen bundles, an increase in the thickness of the collagen bundles, without an increase in the number of fibroblasts. There is also entrapment of the eccrine glands by sclerosis, leading to the loss of their adipose pad. This change is preferentially located in the reticular dermis.

Non specific cutaneous manifestations related to systemic sclerosis are: capillaroscopy with SS pattern in 83%–98% of cases and with early onset; telangiectasias; calcinosis cutis; dyschromia: Addison’s disease-like hyperchromia, hypo- and hyperpigmented macules, and ‘salt and pepper’ leukoderma (which spares the perifollicular region).20

Localized scleroderma (also called morphea) comprises sclerosis of any depth in the skin and does not progress to systemic sclerosis. Twenty to 80% of individuals with morphea may have a positive ANA, and this is not associated with an increased risk of systemic disease or another connective tissue disease. There is no change in the periungual capillaries in localized scleroderma.

Purpuras can be associated with both severe and life-threatening diseases and common, benign chronic conditions. In both cases, they are characterized as non specific manifestations of a myriad of diseases. Anyway, in most cases, a detailed anamnesis and clinical examination associated with some laboratory tests are enough for its evaluation.

The morphology of purpura helps both in its differentiation and in understanding its pathophysiological mechanism. The purpuras may be the result of a simple hemorrhagic process, hemorrhage secondary to vessel inflammation and, finally, occlusive hemorrhage with minimal secondary inflammation.

Vasculitis is a consequence of blood vessel inflammation.31 It may indicate a disease limited to the skin, the manifestation of a systemic disease or drug use, or a primary skin disease with systemic effects. Vasculitis can be caused by infections, drugs, neoplasms, autoimmune and connective tissue diseases. In these cases, it constitutes a non specific reaction to the causal agent. However, approximately half of the cases are idiopathic leukocytoclastic vasculitis.

The clinical effects depend on the location and size of the affected vessel.32

The 2012 International Chapel Hill Consensus Conference on the Nomenclature of Systemic Vasculitides defined the nomenclature of systemic vasculitis.32 They are classified as:

Primary vasculitis

Small-vessel vasculitis: related to ANCA (microscopic polyangiitis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis) and associated with immune complex deposits (IgA vasculitis, cryoglobulinemic vasculitis, hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis, anti-glomerular basement membrane disease).

Medium-vessel vasculitis: polyarteritis nodosa and Kawasaki disease.

Large-vessel vasculitis: Takayasu’s arteritis.

Vasculitis of variable size vessels: Behçet’s disease and Cogan’s syndrome.

Single-organ vasculitis: leukocytoclastic vasculitis limited to the skin, cutaneous arteritis, isolated aortitis, primary central nervous system vasculitis.

Cutaneous vasculitis can manifest with changes in skin color, such as erythema, petechiae and livedo reticularis, and even cell damage in all layers, such as in digital gangrene.

When the small vessels usually located in the papillary dermis are involved, they cause a maculopapular exanthema that progresses to palpable purpura. However, these lesions do not disappear with pressure. Macules, petechiae, vesicles, bullae, and ulcerations have also been described.31

Damage to the medium sized vessels located in the deep dermis causes greater and deeper damage. Nodules, ulcers, livedo, and necrotic lesions have also been described. There are no large vessels in the skin.31

The most common clinical presentation of cutaneous vasculitis is palpable purpura and the distal region of the lower limbs is the most predominant area. The main extracutaneous manifestations are arthralgias and arthritis, renal alterations and gastrointestinal involvement.

Takayasu’s arteritis

Takayasu’s arteritis is a large-vessel vasculitis, but it can affect smaller vessels. Inflammation progresses to occlusion that can lead to stenosis or aneurysm formation. It is more common in women and usually starts in the second and third decades of life. On the skin, it can cause purpura, livedo reticularis, subcutaneous lesions similar to erythema nodosum, indurated erythema, inflammatory nodules, necrotic and/or ulcerated nodules, digital gangrene, ulcers similar to pyoderma gangrenosum, Raynaud’s phenomenon, urticaria, angioedema, and erythema multiforme.32,33 The nodules are usually unrelated to the vascular involvement site and can arise at any stage of the disease. Cases of association with Sweet's syndrome have been described in children.33

Giant cell arteritis

The cutaneous manifestations of giant cell arteritis are rare. They may be ischemic lesions resulting from arterial obstruction or lesions generated by other mechanisms. Induration, erythema and bullae on the scalp and temples, glossitis and tongue necrosis, scalp necrosis, purpura, distal limb gangrene, periorbital ecchymosis, face and neck edema, nodules, and granuloma annulare have been described.33

Polyarteritis nodosa

Systemic polyarteritis nodosa (PAN) is a necrotizing vasculitis of small or medium-sized arteries without glomerulonephritis or vasculitis of arterioles, capillaries or venules, not associated with ANCA. Palpable purpura, livedo reticularis, nodules, urticarial lesions, transient erythema, superficial phlebitis, distal necrosis, and splinter hemorrhages can be observed.33

Cutaneous PAN is a necrotizing vasculitis of deep dermal and subcutaneous arterioles. It may be related to infections (hepatitis B, hepatitis C, M. tuberculosis, HIV, HTLV, parvovirus B19, cytomegalovirus; and in children: streptococcosis), inflammatory diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, and drugs (penicillin, minocycline). The main findings are subcutaneous nodules, livedo reticularis, purpura, and ulcers.33 Symptoms such as fever, weight loss, arthritis, and neuropathy can appear in any presentation.

Kawasaki disease

Kawasaki disease is an acute vasculitis that occurs mainly in children. It usually starts with fever and a polymorphic exanthema of centrifugal dissemination, in addition to oropharyngeal enanthema and ‘strawberry tongue’. After a few days, perineal and fingertip desquamation appears.33 The disease can progress to vasculitis and aneurysm formation in the coronary arteries. Therefore, diagnostic suspicion is essential for the early implementation of treatment and minimization of sequelae.

ANCA-associated vasculitis

ANCA-associated vasculitis most commonly causes palpable purpura, but may occasionally present with livedo racemosa, erythema nodosum, subcutaneous nodules, and painful ulcers. Neutrophil-predominant leukocytoclastic vasculitis is the most common histopathological finding in microscopic polyangiitis and in granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) – formerly called Wegener’s granulomatosis. In eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (formerly called Churg-Strauss syndrome), extravascular necrotizing granulomas with mixed neutrophil and eosinophil infiltrates predominate.32,33

Vasculitis associated with immune complexes

IgA vasculitis, better known in children as Henoch-Schönlein purpura, is the most common vasculitis in childhood and usually presents as erythematous papules that take an ascending direction from the distal region of the lower limbs and progress to palpable purpura.

Cryoglobulinemic vasculitis is caused by the deposition of cryoglobulins in small vessels. According to the deposited cryoglobulins, they can be divided into type I (monoclonal), type II (mono and polyclonal), or type III (polyclonal).32 Type I is related to lymphoproliferative disorders of B lymphocytes, such as multiple myeloma, and manifests as a thrombotic vasculopathy (Fig. 8). Types II and III are associated with infections (mainly hepatitis C), autoimmunity (rheumatoid arthritis, Sjögren’s syndrome, and systemic lupus erythematosus), or neoplastic diseases, but they may also be idiopathic.34 The idiopathic type III is called essential mixed cryoglobulinemia. The most common clinical form of cryoglobulinemia is the intermittent appearance of palpable petechiae in the lower limbs. Acrocyanosis, necrosis, and painful ulcers may also appear,32 with or without arthralgia, arthritis, neuropathy, and nephropathy.

Figure 8.

Cryoglobulinemic thrombotic vasculopathy. Type 1 cryoglobulinemia coursing with thrombotic vasculopathy: erythematous and purpuric macules with jagged outline and central necrosis.

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Hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis presents with urticarial plaques that last for more than 24 hours, are often more painful than pruriginous, and leave local pigmentation. It is more common in women and may be accompanied by arthralgia and ocular changes. For diagnosis, recurrent urticarial lesions and reduced serum complement must be present, as well as two of the following characteristics: cutaneous vasculitis (leukocytoclastic), arthritis or arthralgias, ocular inflammation, glomerulonephritis, abdominal pain, and/or anti-C1q antibody. Hepatitis B, neoplasms, systemic lupus erythematosus, and Sjögren’s syndrome should be investigated.

Variable vessel vasculitis

Behcet’s disease is a disorder associated with immune-mediated obstructive vasculitis that was addressed in the section on neutrophilic diseases.

Cogan Syndrome is an ocular and auditory immune disease that may be associated with systemic vasculitis.

None declared.

Ana Luisa Sampaio: Approval of the final version of the manuscript; drafting and editing of the manuscript; collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; critical review of the literature; critical review of the manuscript.

Aline Lopes Bressan: Approval of the final version of the manuscript; drafting and editing of the manuscript; collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; critical review of the literature.

Barbara Nader Vasconcelos: Approval of the final version of the manuscript; drafting and editing of the manuscript; collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; critical review of the literature.

Alexandre Carlos Gripp: Approval of the final version of the manuscript; design and planning of the study; drafting and editing of the manuscript; collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; critical review of the literature; effective participation in research orientation.

None declared.